Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 40

Economics - Essay Example That makes lending conditions more difficult, especially at smaller banks. The March loan-to-deposit ratio of 83 per cent  for Chinas small and midsize banks was already above the 75 per cent  limit set by the regulator. In aggregate, though, it isnt clear the banks are short of funds to lend. The level of reserves banks hold above the requirement held steady at 2.2 percentage points in March, up from 0.8 points in the middle of 2011. The seven-day interbank lending rate was 3.2 per cent  Friday, down from an average of 4 per cent  in 2011. Both measures suggest that liquidity conditions are improving. With no shortage of funds in the banking system, but new loans low, the obvious conclusion is that it is constrained demand for loans, not a constrained supply of credit, that is the problem. The shrinking share of long-term loans in the total for new lending - down to 28  per cent  in April from an average of 51 per cent  in 2011 - suggests businesses dont see so many opportunities for profitable investment. In the past, demand for loans was always strong. Increasing supply by lowering the reserve-requirement ratio was a sure-fire way to give growth a boost. If demand is now less assured, opening the lending taps may no longer provide a quick

George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA Essay

George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA - Essay Example Serving as director from 1997 to 2004, he was able to balance the policies of the both President Clinton and then President Bush Jr. This means that his time as director allowed him to witness the unfortunate terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 and the invasion of Iraq, among other controversial events of the late 90’s and early new millennium. White (2008) points out that, â€Å"Few other central intelligence directors have served for so long, so energetically, or amid so much controversy† (para. 1). With so many events happening in rapid succession, it is difficult to cover each one with any depth. White does a great job, however, highlighting major policy issues and decisions that Tenet was faced with during his tenure. In addition, much of the article deals with government and public perception of his job performance. It has been said that George Tenet was certainly blunt and straight forward, but he was also fiercely loyal. White (2008) notes that Tenet was a w orkhorse who likely got this from his parents. He grew up in Queens, where his parents settled after emigrating from Greece (para. 4). His parents ended up scraping together enough money and bought a diner. That is where the family worked 16-hour days together. He took this same work ethic and devotion to the job with him to Washington. The article recounts that George Tenet began his career in government as a legislative assistant in 1982 for Senator John Heinz. From there, he moved on to the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. This is where he got his passion for security and intelligence. He became quite a force around Washington and moved up through the ranks. The article walks the reader through these early years and tells about Tenet landing a place on Bill Clinton’s transition team to the Presidency. He informed the President on issues related to intelligence. He so impressed President Clinton, that he was kept on and began performing various functions until movin g to the CIA in 1995, and eventually earning the appointment as director in 1997 (White Para. 6). This brief description provided in the article really enables the reader to understand the process by which George Tenet came to be director and the philosophies and style of work that he would bring to the office. Now that White has established what bought Tenet to the most powerful position in the intelligence world, he spends the next part of the article discussing the state of the CIA at the time. We discover that the entire organization was really in bad shape. White hammers this home by reminding readers that, â€Å"The agency had suffered inconsistent leadership since the fall of the Soviet Union, and [Tenet] was the fifth Director of Central Intelligence in seven years† (White, para. 10). This is where the explanation of where Tenet’s work ethic comes into play. He was not afraid to put in the hours required to turn around the agency. We learn in the article that t he Agency had recently lost nearly 20 percent of its workforce (White, Para. 10) and that morale was at an all time low. To combat this, Tenet immediately set out to bring back some seasoned officers who had recently retired, and he began to resurrect a budgetary system that was in shambles. This would enable the CIA to get a grip on recent technology that it was missing out on and become a major player in

Young Entrepreneurs Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Young Entrepreneurs - Assignment Example His latest project in the solar-powered (LED) lantern has been described by many as the greatest innovation in recent time to cushion those who cannot afford the electricity. This project also aimed at providing light to school going children from poor families who could not stand the smoke of the local kerosene lamp The idea of developing the solar-powered lantern was originally presented by Wadongo at a local congress of young innovative youth’s forum in Kenya and was picked as a promising one with the potential to solve the problem in their communities. Wadongo did a lot of his research on the design and the sizes that most suited the targeted population. Through his various attempt to design the sustainable product that would not only last for long, but also provide a cleaner source of energy, he came up with something that has been appreciated worldwide. His bright idea that only started in a small village in Kenya has been recognized worldwide in various forums. According to the locals, Wadongo’s project is one that has helped more children go back to their schools and the impact being felt almost immediately. The performances have increased in most schools that have adopted the use of the solar-powered lantern. According to Wadongo, his project has not reached its peak yet w ith several additions intended to be made. He wants to extend the scheme to cover more areas in the country, and the same time sells his solar tapped power to major towns. He said that â€Å"this approach will work best for him due to the frequent power blackouts experienced in those towns’’. His idea was driven by the fact that 90% of the country’s power is generated from hydropower stations and the need for other reliable means of power generation was needed. According to Wadongo, the current power rates in the country are very high, and the consumers will welcome any form of cushioning. With the rates currently at Ksh 75 per Kw unit, he intends

Amended Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act Assignment

Amended Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act - Assignment Example The New England Journal of Medicine published a survey study conducted by Dr. David Eisenberg, of Beth Israel Hospital and Harvard Medical School, which showed that 85 million Americans are using alternative methods for their health care needs, most of which is not covered by their insurance, and furthermore, the number of times they used alternative medicine practitioners was considerably more than the number of times they used allopathic doctors (Eisenberg, Kesler, Foster, Norlock, Calkins, & Delbanco, 1993). Why isn’t the new health reform program taking this preference into account? Exploring who the 8% uninsured will be, I am led to understand that Native Americans, people with financial hardship, and those with religious objections make up at least part of this group, and that everyone else will be required to have insurance or they will be fined, and the fines are fairly high (Galwitz, 2010).

IB Chemistry Lab Design - compare the effect of temperature on the concentrations of Vitamin C and Vitamin A in solution Essay Example for Free

IB Chemistry Lab Design compare the effect of temperature on the concentrations of Vitamin C and Vitamin A in solution Essay Research Question: To compare the effect of temperature on the concentrations of Vitamin C and Vitamin A in solution. Background Information: Many researchers claim that the vitamin content in the food we eat decreases as we cook the food, since it is being exposed to high temperatures. This really intrigued me since cooking is one of my hobbies, and I always try and check the nutritional value of meals that I cook. With this in mind, it was quintessential for me to see for myself if these claims hold true. To narrow the scope of the investigation, I chose Vitamins A and C to do this study upon. The claims state that the enzyme in whose form Vitamin C is found, gets denatured (or oxidised) at temperatures over 70Â °C as well as at low temperatures, in the freezer. Also, studies claim that Vitamin A (in the form of retinol) gets oxidised at high temperatures, during cooking. Once these vitamins get oxidised, they are lost to us. This investigation will compare the effects of high temperature on Vitamin A and Vitamin C solutions. http://chemmovies.unl.edu/chemistry/smallscale/SSGifs/SS054Ascorbic.gif The ascorbic acid enzyme gets denatured at high temperatures because the tertiary structure of the protein, which the enzyme is made up of, unravels, causing the active site of the enzyme to change in shape. This leads to the substrate being unable to fit into the active site, and we say that the enzyme is denatured. This denaturing can take place at extremes of pH too.The Vitamin A (retinol) gets oxidised because, at high temperatures, it reacts with oxygen in the air to form a carboxylic acid (retinoic acid). In the laboratory, ascorbic acid found in fruits and vegetables can be simulated by adding ascorbic acid crystals to water, to form a mildly acidic solution. This solution can also be used as the standard solution during titration to find concentration of ascorbic acid. To simulate Vitamin A, we can simply add retinol to water to form a standard solution. Hypothesis: At higher temperatures, both the concentration of Vitamin C and Vitamin A can be expected to decrease. However, I expect the decrease to be greater in the case of the Vitamin C solution since (having protein-like properties) it is more sensitive to extremes of temperature. Also, the alcohol retinol has a high boiling point, so I believe that it will be more resistant to oxidation too. Variables: Independent Variable Why and How it is Changed Temperature to which the Vitamin C/A solution is heated The factor whose effect is being studied on the concentration of Vitamin C/A in a solution is the temperature the solution is heated to. Therefore, the temperature is the independent variable. In order to change the temperature, equal quantities of the same Vitamin C/A solution are heated to different temperatures. The different temperatures taken are – 30Â °C, 50Â °C, 70Â °C and 90Â °C. As a control, one solution is placed at room temperature. A thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the solution. Investigation at each temperature will be repeated 3 times, to ensure reliability. Dependent Variable Why and How it is Recorded Concentration of Vitamin C/A in solution (in mol dm-3), after exposure to temperature The effect of temperature on the concentration of Vitamin C/A in a solution is being studied, thus the concentration is the dependent variable. As the temperature moves further away from room temperature (above or below) the concentration of Vitamin C/A in the solution should decrease due to denaturing or oxidation. The concentration of Vitamin C is calculated by doing an iodine titration. A starch solution is added to a standard Vitamin C solution which is the titrant. Into this, a solution of potassium iodide and potassium iodate is titrated till a blue colour is obtained (end point). This is repeated thrice. The average volume of iodine solution used is calculated, and divided by the concentration of Vitamin C. Then, the solutions of unknown concentrations are titrated and unitary method is used to calculate their concentrations. The concentration of Vitamin A is calculated using a redox titration. This is done by making a solution of acid dichromate, potassium iodide and starch. This is titrated against a solution of sodium thiosulfate of known concentration. The volume of thiosulfate used is noted. Then, the Vitamin A solutions are added to a similar solution of dichromate, KI and starch, and titration is carried out with thiosulfate. For every 1 less mole of thiosulfate used there is 0.25 mole of alcohol in the sample (according to the chemical equations) which was tested. Controlled Variable Why and How it is Maintained pH of Vitamin solution Extremes of pH can also lead to the denaturing of enzymes, so if pH changes it will interfere with the results, potentially giving inaccurate results. Thus, the pH needs to be kept a constant. This can be done by adding a few drops of acidic buffer to the initial solution. Presence of Antioxidants Antioxidants including salts such as sodium chloride tend to ‘protect’ ascorbic acid from being oxidised, and thus their presence may lead to inaccurate results. Thus, they need to be eliminated. This can be done by using distilled water (without any salts) while preparing the solution of ascorbic acid. Head Space Present in System The ascorbic acid gets denatured because of oxidation by air. Thus, if the volume of air present in the system changes, the results will also change invariably. To prevent this, the amount of head space present in the system must be kept constant. This can be done by placing a lid on top of the beaker in which the acid solution is heated. Initial Concentration of Ascorbic Acid solution If the initial concentration of ascorbic acid in the solution is different, then the final concentration will also be affected. This can be avoided by adding the same mass of ascorbic acid to the same volume of water while preparing all the sample solutions. Volume of Ascorbic Acid solution The volume of acid solution used for each temperature and each trial should be the same since otherwise it will affect the volume of iodine solution used. Therefore, the volume has to be measured accurately using a pipette for each temperature and trial (each titration). Concentration of starch, potassium iodide and potassium iodate solutions The concentration of any of these solutions will affect the volume of solution titrated during each trial. Thus, it needs to be kept a constant. This can be done by ensuring that equal masses of these reagents are added to equal volumes of water, for all the trials. Final temperature of solution The final temperature of the solution may affect the concentration of the acid in the solution, as rapid heating and cooling can encourage oxidation. Thus, to avoid errors, the solutions will be allowed to rest till they reach room temperature, and only then will they be titrated to calculate concentration. Chemicals 1. L-ascorbic acid – 3.52 g to make 1 dm3 of 0.002 M solution of acid 1. Glucose – 50 g to add to acid solution, to simulate fruit juice 1. Potassium Iodide – 10.0 g to make 1 dm3 iodine solution 1. Potassium Iodate – 0.536 g to make 1 dm3 iodine solution 1. Starch (soluble) – 0.25 g to make 50 ml of 0.5% starch solution 1. 3.00 M Sulphuric Acid – 60 ml to add to iodine solution 1. Distilled Water – To make all the solutions and washing Other Materials 1. Weighing Scale 1. Bunsen Burner 1. Tripod Stand 1. Wire Gauze 1. Mortar and Pestle 1. Pipette Filler 1. Lid (for beaker) – 4 1. Thermometer Procedure: Preparing Ascorbic Acid Solution of concentration 0.002 M 1. Measure 3.52 g of L-ascorbic acid using the weighing scale and the weighing boat (which has to be completely dry). 1. Place the weighed crystals in the mortar and use the pestle to crush the crystals into a fine powder, to aid with dissolving it in water. 1. Place the powdered acid into a 500 ml beaker and add a little distilled water to dissolve the acid. Use the glass rod to stir. 1. Once it seems that the acid has fully dissolved, add some more water to the solution, to ensure that all the acid has actually dissolved. Then, transfer the solution into the 1000 ml standard flask using a washed funnel and the glass rod. 1. Wash the beaker with water and pour into standard flask, to remove any remaining solution. Repeat this process 3 times. 1. Wash the funnel and the glass rod, letting the water run into the standard flask. 1. Make up the solution to the 1000 ml mark. Place the stopper and mix the solution thoroughly. Transfer approximately 500 ml of this solution to the 500 ml beaker, for ease of use. Preparing the 0.5 % starch solution 1. Measure 0.25 g of starch using the weighing scale and weighing boat. 1. Bring 50 ml of distilled water nearly to a boil, and then add the measured quantity of starch powder to it. Allow to cool. Preparing the Iodine Solution 1. Measure 10.0 g of potassium iodide and 0.536 g of potassium iodate using the weighing scale and weighing boat. Transfer this to a 500 ml beaker. 1. Dissolve the solids in approximately 400 ml of distilled water. Stir using the glass rod, to aid in dissolving. Add the 60 ml of 3.00 M sulphuric acid to the solution at this point. 1. Once it seems that the solids have fully dissolved, add some more water to the solution, to ensure that all of it has actually dissolved. Then, transfer the solution into a 1000 ml standard flask, using a washed funnel and the glass rod. 1. Wash the beaker with water and pour into standard flask, to remove any remaining solution. Repeat this process 3 times. 1. Wash the funnel and the glass rod, letting the water run into the standard flask. 1. Make up the solution to the 1000 ml mark. Place the stopper and mix the solution thoroughly. Transfer approximately 500 ml of this solution to a 500 ml beaker, for ease of use. Titration Set-up and Final Steps 1. Transfer 65 ml of Vitamin C solution each into 5, 250 ml beakers. 1. Keep one of the containers in a trough containing melting ice (0Â °C). Keep one at room temperature (as a control + standard solution). Heat the other three to 30Â °C, 60Â °C and 90Â °C respectively. Ensure that all the beakers are covered with a lid during heating or cooling. 1. Wash the pipette, first using tap water and then distilled water. Rinse the pipette thoroughly with the Vitamin C solution at room temperature. 1. Use a pipette to transfer 20 ml of the Vitamin C solution, at room temperature, into a conical flask. This is the standard solution (and the control) since its concentration is known (0.002 M). 1. Add 10 drops of the starch solution to the conical flask. Swirl the contents to mix properly. 1. Wash the burette with tap water followed by distilled water. Then, rinse the burette with the iodine solution. 1. Fill the burette with iodine solution till the 0.0 ml mark. 1. Titrate the iodine solution into the conical flask, swirling the conical flask at all times. The end point is reached when a blue colour is obtained that persists even after 20 seconds of swirling. Note down the volume of iodine solution used. 1. Re-fill the burette to the 0.0 ml mark. Repeat the titration process 2 more times. Note down these two values for volume of iodine solution used as well. Calculate the average volume used. 1. Check that all the solutions that were heated (or cooled) have reached room temperature, with the help of a thermometer. 1. If they have reached room temperature, repeat the entire titration process (steps 18 – 24) with the other 4 solution (0Â °C, 30Â °C, 60Â °C and 90Â °C). Ensure that the burette is re-filled to the 0.0 ml mark after each and every titration, and that the pipette is first washed, and then rinsed with the solution that is going to be placed in the conical flask. 1. Use unitary method, to calculate the concentration of Vitamin C in each solution, after heating or cooling, using the concentration of the solution at room temperature (0.002 M) as the known value.

A Comparison Of Machiavelli And Hobbes Politics Essay

A Comparison Of Machiavelli And Hobbes Politics Essay Machiavelli and Hobbes were the most important political philosophers of early modernity. Politically, modernitys earliest phase starts with  Niccolà ³ Machiavellis works which openly rejected the medieval and Aristotelian style of analyzing politics by comparison ideas about how things should be, in favor of realistic analysis of how things really are. He also proposed that an aim of politics is to control ones own chance or fortune, and that relying upon providence actually leads to evil. Machiavelli argued, for example, that violent divisions within political communities are unavoidable, but can also be a source of strength which law-makers and leaders should account for and even encourage in some ways.  [1]   Machiavellis recommendations were sometimes influential upon kings and princes, but eventually came to be seen as favoring free republics over monarchies. Machiavelli in turn influenced  Francis Bacon,  Marchamont Needham,  Harrington,  John Milton,  David Hume, and many others.  [2]   Important modern political doctrines which stem from the new Machiavellian realism include  Mandevilles influential proposal that Private Vices by the dexterous Management of a skilful Politician may be turned into Public Benefits (the last sentence of his  Fable of the Bees), and also the doctrine of a constitutional separation of powers in government, first clearly proposed by  Montesquieu. Both these principles are enshrined within the  constitutions  of most  modern democracies. It has been observed that while Machiavellis realism saw a value to war and political violence, his lasting influence has been tamed so that useful conflict was deliberately converted as much as possible to formalized political struggles and the economic conflict encouraged between free, private enterprises.  [3]   As I said in the first paragraph of this essay I will start with  Thomas Hobbes, attempts were made to use the methods of the new modern physical sciences, as proposed by  Bacon  and  Descartes, applied to humanity and politics. Notable attempts to improve upon the methodological approach of Hobbes include those of  Locke,  Spinoza,  Giambattista Vico  and Rousseau.  David Hume  made what he considered to be the first proper attempt at trying to apply Bacons scientific method to political subjects, rejecting some aspects of the approach of Hobbes.  [4]   Modernist republicanism openly influenced the foundation of republics during the  Dutch Revolt  (1568-1609),  English Civil War  (1642-1651),  American Revolution  (1775-1783) and the  French Revolution  (1789-1799 A second phase of modernist political thinking begins with Rousseau, who questioned the natural rationality and sociality of humanity and proposed that  human nature  was much more malleable than had been previously thought. By this logic, what makes a good political system or a good man is completely dependent upon the chance path whole person has taken over history. This thought influenced the political (and aesthetic) thinking of  Immanuel Kant,  Edmund Burke  and others and led to a critical review of modernist politics. On the conservative side, Burke argued that this understanding encouraged caution and avoidance of radical change. However more ambitious movements also developed from this insight into human  culture, initially  Romanticism  and  Historicism, and eventually both the  Communism  of  Karl Marx, and the modern forms of  nationalism  inspired by the  French Revolution, including, in one extreme, the German  Nazi  movement. Francis Bacon inspired by Machiavelli Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was one of the leading figures in natural philosophy and in the field of scientific methodology in the period of transition from the Renaissance to the early modern era. As a lawyer, member of Parliament, and Queens Counsel, Bacon wrote on questions of law, state and religion, as well as on contemporary politics; but he also published texts in which he speculated on possible conceptions of society, and he pondered questions of ethics (Essays) even in his works on natural philosophy (The Advancement of Learning).  [5]   After his studies at Trinity College, Cambridge and Grays Inn, London, Bacon did not take up a post at a university, but instead tried to start a political career. Although his efforts were not crowned with success during the era of Queen Elizabeth, under James I he rose to the highest political office, Lord Chancellor. Bacons international fame and influence spread during his last years, when he was able to focus his energies exclusively on his philosophical work, and even more so after his death, when English scientists of the Boyle circle (Invisible College) took up his idea of a cooperative research institution in their plans and preparations for establishing the Royal Society.  [6]   Bacons method for permeating his philosophical ideas into the collective unconscious of the age can best be summarised in his motto: bene visit qui bene latuit One lives best by the hidden life. Bacon resurrected the Rosicrucian Mystery School and the Freemasons, and injected new life into these secret fraternity societies so they became vehicles for the new Baconian philosophy of reason and scientific enquiry. Bacon, like Goethe, scorned knowledge that did not lead to action and also scorned the denial of evil in ourselves. Bacon was grateful to Machiavelli for his frank appraisal of the shadow side of human nature in politics: We are beholden to Machiavelli, and writers of that kind, who openly and unmasked declare what men do in fact, and not what they ought to do; for it is impossible to join the wisdom of the serpent and the innocence of the dove, without the precious knowledge of the nature of evil.  Bacons works touch on all aspects of humanity politics, religion, theology , scientific method, but his most brilliant observations are psychological. Foreshadowing the discoveries by Carl Jung about the nature of the unconscious and the shadow side of man, Bacon recognized that the baseness of man should be recognized and dealt with openly, not repressed and personified as the devil.  [7]   In modern political vernacular, Bacon was a conservative. He saw an ideal Government as one which was benevolent without the worst excesses of despotism by rulers, or by the majority the same as Machiavelli. It is almost without instance that any government was unprosperous under learned governors.  Ã‚  [8]   In science, Bacon sought nothing less than the reconstruction of a system that could be applied to the relief of mans suffering. He constructed a new Classification of Science (The Advancement of Learning, 1603-05), described a new method for the Interpretation of Nature (Things Thought and Seen, 1607, Thread of the Labyrinth, 1606, Novum Organum, 1608-20). He investigated the phenomena of nature in Natural History (1622), and showed how the writers of the past had advanced their truths to the time of Bacon in Forest of Forests, published in 1624. Bacon recorded anticipations of scientific results he felt would come from application of his methods in On Origins (1621). As a result of applying these principles, he described the basis of a new society that would emerge in The New Atlantis (1624). This Magna Instauratio, the great reconstruction, was inspired by the vision Bacon had in his youth, and was a herculean task without precedent in the history of thought. As Bacon stated in th e preface to Magna Instauratio. and I am laboring to lay the foundation not of any sect or doctrine, but of utility and power. To Bacon, Knowledge is power, not mere argument or ornament. In Advancement of Learning, Bacon suggested that all areas of life had rational rules and an empirical basis: medicine, psychology, even dreams, predictions and other occult phenomena. Yet he comes full circle at the end of this survey, concluding that science needs to be guided by philosophy. Bacon applies this to politics.  [9]   Comparison Hobbes and Machiavelli on Human Nature Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), whose current reputation rests largely on his political philosophy, was a thinker with wide-ranging interests. In philosophy, he defended a range of materialist, nominalist, and empiricist views against Cartesian and Aristotelian alternatives. In physics, his work was influential on Leibniz, and leads him into disputes with Boyle and the experimentalists of the early Royal Society. In history, he translated Thucydidess  History of the Peloponnesian War  into English, and later wrote his own history of the Long Parliament. In mathematics he was less successful, and is best remembered for his repeated unsuccessful attempts to square the circle. But despite that, Hobbes was a serious and prominent participant in the intellectual life of his time.  [10]   Thomas Hobbes and Machiavelli shared a commonality in the time period in which they each lived. Separated by approximately 100 years, both thinkers were focusing on political theory. Hobbes theory tended to focus on the social contract between a people and its government. Machiavellis theory focused on the attributes that formed a successful ruler. Examining both theories, a comparison is evident in that Machiavelli and Hobbes both seem to discuss the human nature of society. In Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes views human nature as individual self-preservation and as a place of constant war. There is a constant struggle between men. What causes this conflict amongst men? Hobbes believes that competition and glory causes war between men. He says, If two men desire the same thing, which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies to destroy one another. He concludes that self-preservation is the only way to safeguard from being destroyed. The only way to preserve one is to become more powerful than the other. Government must also be instituted to ensure peace and security through whatever means necessary. Hobbes believes that life without government would be poor, nasty, brutish and short.  Ã‚  [11]   In the Prince, Machiavelli views human nature as pertaining to those who are ruled and those who rule. He promoted a secular society and believed that morality stood in the way. He distrusts people and believes that in a time of adversity, when the state is in need of its citizens there are few to be found. He questions the loyalty of the citizens. Because of this, he advises the Prince that, because men are wretched creatures who would not keep their word to you, you need keep your word to them. Machiavelli believed that the secular form of government to be the most successful. His views were to benefit the prince by maintaining power rather to serve the well being of the citizens. Hobbes and Machiavelli both have interesting ideas on Human Nature. Both of their ideas also contain an evident theme. The theme is the usage of fear as a means acquiring power and maintaining it. The theme of fear is not illustrated in great detail in Hobbes work as it is in Machiavellis. Nevertheless an interesting comparison can be drawn between the two.  Ã‚  [12]   Hobbes believes that people naturally fear death. The easiest and safest way to avoid death was to create a centralized state. An autocracy would ensure the universal desire for life. According to Hobbes, people would give up their power collectively to one ruler. In turn, the people would shut up and do what they were told. The only right they would have would be the right not to be killed. They would live under a tyrannical ruler who had all powers to decide good and evil for the people. He believes that fear is essential to maintain power and authority of the people. This is evident in his text with, And covenants, without the sword are but words, and strength to secure a man at all.  [13]   Machiavelli poises the question to the Prince is it better to be loved than feared or vice versa He addresses this question in regards to what benefits a ruler more. He concludes that a prince cannot be both feared and loved. Machiavelli believes that it is better to be feared by the citizens. This is seen as an economy of violence in which fear is used by violence to invoke a lasting impression on the people. This economy must happen at the beginning on an event where the timing is equally important. The violent act must be made into a spectacle done in the open where people can see and judge. People judge by appearances, so what they see will affect their mentality. The more violent the act the more fearful the individual will be of the same act upon them. Fear in a sense is used by both authors to train the people. It must be instilled upon them in order to maintain a successful regime. It is like the training of an animal. The master must instill on the animal that he is in charg e. If he does not then the animal will overpower the master. The master must make the animal afraid of him by punishing it when it does wrong. Eventually the animal will realize who is in control.  Ã‚  [14]   Spinoza and Machiavelli ideas. Spinoza is one of the most important philosophers-and certainly the most radical-of the early modern period. His thought combines a commitment to Cartesian metaphysical and epistemological principles with elements from ancient Stoicism and medieval Jewish rationalism into a nonetheless highly original system. His extremely naturalistic views on God, the world, the human being and knowledge serve to ground a moral philosophy centered on the control of the passions leading to virtue and happiness. They also lay the foundations for a strongly democratic political thought and a deep critique of the pretensions of Scripture and sectarian religion. Of all the philosophers of the seventeenth-century, perhaps none have more relevance today than Spinoza.  [15]   Spinozas political thought draws from a number of sources, both classical and modern. As one commentator puts it, Spinoza formed new conclusions from facts and concepts borrowed from others. It is worth briefly considering some of the sources of the facts and concepts that he inherits.  [16]   At some point in the mid-1650s. Spinoza began studying Latin with Franciscus Van den Enden. Van den Enden was an ex-Jesuit and radical egalitarian with revolutionary tendencies. He was put to death in 1674 after having been found guilty of conspiring to depose Louis XIV in order to establish a free republic in Normandy. Van dan Enden was an anti-clerical democrat who appears to have profoundly influenced Spinoza. One commentator has gone so far as to call Van den Enden the genius behind Spinoza, claiming that Van den Endens writings contains a political theory which is in fact the same as the one worked out by Spinoza. Whether or not this assessment is fair, it is clear that Spinozas thinking was nourished through his association with Van den Enden and the larger radical Cartesian circle in Amsterdam.  [17]   Hobbes influence on Spinoza is unmistakable. We know that Spinoza read  De Cive  carefully and that it was among his possessions when he died in 1677. He might also have read  Leviathan, which appeared in Latin in 1668, as Spinoza was completing the TTP, although we do not know this for sure. I will discuss Spinozas work in relationship to Machiavelli in some detail below. Here I want to mention the impact of Machiavellian on Spinoza. Machiavellian thought was introduced into Dutch political discourse by Lambert van Velthuysen, an anti-clerical, liberal physician. Velthuysens Dissertatio  is an unabashed defense of Machiavelli thought, in which the duty to preserve one is given pride of place. Spinoza read and admired Velthuysen as a man of exceptional sincerity of mind, and was thus disconcerted when Velthuysen denounced the TTP as the work of a cunning atheist.  [18]   Aside from Velthuysen, the other primary Dutch conduits for Machiavellian thought prior to Spinoza were the De la Court brothers. Most of the De la Courts writings were published by Pieter De la Court after the death of his brother Johan in 1660. However, because it remains unclear how much Pieter added and how much he profited off his studious younger brother, I will refer to these authors of these writings simply as the De la Courts, so as to avoid attribution problems. The De la Courts were ardent republicans who maintained good relations with Johan De Witt. Indeed, De Witt is thought to have written two chapters in the second edition of their book  Interest van Holland. The De la Courts adopted the basic features of Machiavellian anthropology, but eschewed juridical concepts like right and contract, opting to analyze the civil condition in terms of the competing interests of participants. According to them, the aim of the state is to ensure that the interests of rulers are tied to the interests of the ruled, which is possible only if one adopts a series of institutional measures, such as the use of blind balloting, the removal of hereditary posts, and the rotation of offices. Republics, they argued, will be marked by greater checks against self-interested legislation than monarchies. Spinoza evidently studied these works carefully; his institutional recommendations in the  Tractatus Politicus.  [19]   It was likely the writings of the De la Courts that impressed upon Spinoza the perspicacity of Niccolo Machiavelli. The notion of balancing the interests of competing parties was ultimately derived from Machiavelli. Spinozas  Political Treatise  is shot through with Machiavellian insights and recommendations. Right at the outset of the work, Spinoza parrots Machiavellis critique of utopian theorizing, elevating statesmen over philosophers, since only the latter begin with a realistic conception of human psychology. Machiavellian realism pervades Spinozas political writings, playing a particularly large role in the constitutional theorizing of the TP. Spinoza, like Machiavelli, understood that prescriptions for improving the governance of a state can be offered only after one has a proper diagnosis of the problems and a proper grasp of human nature.  [20]   Machiavelli and Locke John Locke (b. 1632, d. 1704) was a British philosopher, Oxford academic and medical researcher, whose association with Anthony Ashley Cooper (later the First Earl of Shaftesbury) led him to become successively a government official charged with collecting information about trade and colonies, economic writer, opposition political activist, and finally a revolutionary whose cause ultimately triumphed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Much of Lockes work is characterized by opposition to authoritarianism. This opposition is both on the level of the individual person and on the level of institutions such as government and church. For the individual, Locke wants each of us to use reason to search after truth rather than simply accept the opinion of authorities or be subject to superstition. He wants us to proportion assent to propositions to the evidence for them. On the level of institutions it becomes important to distinguish the legitimate from the illegitimate functions of institu tions and to make the corresponding distinction for the uses of force by these institutions. The positive side of Lockes anti-authoritarianism is that he believes that using reason to try to grasp the truth, and determining the legitimate functions of institutions will optimize human flourishing for the individual and society both in respect to its material and spiritual welfare. This in turn, amounts to following natural law and the fulfillment of the divine purpose for humanity.  [21]   John Locke and Niccolo Machiavelli are political philosophers writing in two different lands and two different times. Lockes 17th century England was on the verge of civil war and Machiavellis 15th century Italy was on the verge of invasion. The focus of this part of my essay is to examine the treatment of the people by both authors, to discover what Machiavelli and Locke write about the peoples role in their different structures of government. In particular, this paper seeks to understand that role in regards to the political power each author yields to, or withholds from, the people. In addition, these treatments of power and the people will be compared to the writings of another timeless political philosopher, Plato. By Discourses on Livy, The Prince, and The Republic against one another, this paper will show how writers from three very different centuries all agreed upon an identical notion of the relationship between the power of the people and their role in government. This the ory is not readily apparent upon initial reading of these authors. Indeed, most political philosophers would argue that each author has a very distinct notion of what role the people play in government. Therefore, an ideal place to start is in the differences of each authors portrayal of the people and the political power they wield. Machiavelli, the most pessimistic of the three writers in regards to humans and human nature, writes that all men can be accused of that defect which Livy calls vanity and inconsistency. He continues by writing: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦people are nothing other than a brute animal that, although of a ferocious and feral nature, has always been nourished in prison and in servitude.  [22]   Animals, that are by their nature ferocious, become scared and confused when released from captivity. Without the shelter and food they had come to expect when domesticated, they are more susceptible to future attempts at captivity. Man also becomes scared and confused in freedom after living under the government of others. Machiavelli writes that these men lack understanding of public defense or public offense, and quickly return beneath the yoke that is most often heavier than the one it had removed from its neck a little before. Men are docile like domesticated dogs or cattle, according to this description, and have a role in government of little political power. With Plato, there is a continuation of the same theme started by Machiavelli.  [23]   The oligarchic rule the city through the license of the multitude, and the orderly rule in business through the disadvantage of the multitude. Thus, Machiavelli sees the people as subjugated and Plato sees the people as fatuous, both doomed to political ineptitude. With Locke, however, the character of the people is redeemed. The people, for Locke, represent a political power akin to force. Indeed, the people are the ultimate source of power for Lockes government, whether that government is a legislative body or a prince. In the closing chapter of his second treatise, Locke details the ways that government can dissipate when rulers misuse their power. According to Machiavelli, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the people neither desire to be commanded nor oppressed by the great. In this sense, the people constitute a humor of the city, the opposing humor being the desire of the great to command and oppress the people. A man should be wary of becoming prince with the support of the great instead of the support of the people. Without their support, the prince is doomed to govern either a territory filled with an unmanageable great or a large body of unruly people. Indeed, Machiavelli echoes this in a later chapter by stating à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ a prince should have two fears: one within, on account of his subjects; the other outside, on account of external powers.  [24]   In both this text and Lockes Two Treatises, the authors yield an incredible amount of power to the people: the power to both influence the creation of and bring about the destruction of governments. For Machiavelli, the people are a large body of people, viewed as more formidable, and, therefore, more influential, than the great aristocrats in principality building. For Locke, the people exert a similar influence over the building of a commonwealth, since it is from the people that the power of the prince or legislature originates. Moreover, the people can decide to bring about the end of a particular regime of government if they feel that it no longer adheres to its responsibilities. Thus, the people, in both Machiavelli and Locke, appear to share a similar amount of power both in the formation of government and in its oversight: namely, that of adjudication. In the Discourses, Machiavelli writes of a cyclical succession of governments, one after another, each one rising to prominen ce only to fall to licentiousness. It is through this cycle that Machiavelli demonstrates the power of the people to adjudicate, and he argues that it is this adjudication that perpetuates the cycle. Kings rise to prominence based upon character, until the monarchy becomes hereditary and degenerates into sumptuousness and lasciviousness.  [25]   Machiavelli and Locke both considered the nature of government and mans individual interests as they relate to governmental structures. Machiavellis idea of fortune and Lockes state of nature concept both shaped the theorists arguments about the purpose of political life. It has been posited that for Machiavelli, politics is an unpredictable arena in which ambition, deception and violence render the idea of the common good meaningless, while Locke would argue that political or civil society exists only to preserve the rights of the individual. It can be argued that for both Machiavelli and Lock, political activity, then, becomes merely a means of satisfying selfish ends.  Ã‚  [26]   Napoleà ³n Bonaparte a follower of Machiavelli One of the greatest military commanders and a risk taking gambler; a workaholic genius and an impatient short term planner; a vicious cynic who forgave his closest betrayers; a misogynist who could enthrall men; Napoleon Bonaparte was all of these and more, the twice-emperor of France whose military endeavors and sheer personality dominated Europe in person for a decade, and in thought for a century.  [27]   In 1513, Niccolo Machiavelli wrote a piece of work called, The Prince. It was written to all principalities, and that which is parallel to what Machiavelli suggests is often referred to as being Machiavellian. The purpose of this essay is to ask the question Is Napoleon Bonaparte Machiavellian in Nature? By the evidence found from Napoleons life and accomplishments it can said that he was not Machiavellian in nature, which can be demonstrated by numerous accounts as well as some suggested characteristics given by Machiavelli, to support this theory. This essay will take a look at Napoleons leadership skills, his beliefs and ideals, as well as his personality that made him a great political figure. These aspects of Napoleons persona give a description of how his character was different from that in Machiavellis The Prince. In the area of leadership, Napoleon had many qualities that set him apart from the rest. Napoleon was a great leader but at times his people hated him. Machiavelli believed that, one cannot call it virtue to kill ones citizens, betray ones friends, to be without faith, without mercy, without religion; these modes can enable one to acquire an empire, but not glory.  [28]   Machiavelli said, it remains now to see what the modes and government of a prince should be with subjects and with friends. Apparently Napoleon was not a good friend considering when he was exiled the second time his friends that had been with him since the beginning were said to have killed him. Based on this it can be said that Napoleon does not display characteristics of being Machiavellian. Napoleon believed that he would be a much more successful leader if the people liked him. This is thought so because when he was trying to get political support by the people he did not user fear, he found something they all wanted to hear and he said them. Even though Machiavelli said, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ it is much safer to be feared, then loved, if one has to lack one of the two. Napoleon also tried to make the people like him by setting up the Napoleonic Code, which was a set of laws that gave religious freedom and equality. Another illustration of Napoleons beliefs and, or ideals was, instead of appearing to have Machiavellian characteristics, Napoleon actually had them. Thus it is not necessary for a prince to have all the above mentioned qualities in fact, but it is indeed necessary to appear to have them. Napoleon was actually a feared leader and thought of people as disposable but Machiavelli only said to appear to have these traits. The final area of Napoleons behavior is his p ersonality. Machiavelli stated, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ it is very natural and ordinary to desire to acquire, and always, when men do it who can, they will be praised and not blamed; but when they cannot, and want to do it anyway, here lie the error and the blame.

The Power Of Education Essay -- The Importance of Education

The Power Of Education The Power of education is overwhelming. It develops and enhances the minds of young children into young adults. Education serves as a tool for society to raise its youth to serve society. This process has been a never ending cycle since as long as anyone can remember. Children maturing into proper adults has been the goal of education in the past. However, there is a major controversy over the effects and power of the educational system. Throughout the past the educational system has been the focus over the development of society's youth. All parents, teachers, and concerned individuals ponder the notion of the role and effects of the system in question. Is the purpose of our educational system to teach just the cold hard facts and information, or should it exist to also serve to supply our juveniles with ethics and morals? One such person who confronts today's system is an author, Jonathan Kozol. His thoughts over this concerned area have brought him to write a book entitled, The Ni ght is Dark and I am Far From Home. In his writing he argues that Public schools in the U.S. do not exist to educate an ethical being, but rather educate unprovocative, conforming American citizens. (133) I agree. The function of our educational system should be in existence to serve our growing children with not only the knowledge of information, but the wisdom of morality as well. However, in order to further argue the importance of morality, a formal definition is needed. Just what is meant by morality? Any number of people can look at it and perceive its identity differently. Two writers Barry L.Chazan and Jonas F.Soltis talk define the significance of a moral situation in education as follows, It is, rather, a si... ...th kindness, touched with irony, decorated with compassion, is a reasonable goal for moral paralytics in a land of drought. (168) Morality is needed in the schools for these very reasons. One who opposes this view is only presenting an obstacle to the future growth of our society. As I stated before, the power of education is overwhelming. Morality is needed to provide students with a new emotion of eagerness to learn, able to confront each others ideas, and hold their own beliefs. It is our responsibility to mold our children of clay into powerful, individual, concrete statues, that can last forever. Works Cited Bereiter, Carl.. Must we Educate. Prentice Hall; N.J. 1973 Chazan, Barry I. and Soltis, Jonas F. Moral Education.Columbia; NY and London, 1973. Kozol, Jonathan. The Night is Dark and I am Far From Home. Houghton Mifflin: Boston, 1975.